Advanced Maternal Age

Women in the United States are experiencing unprecedented opportunities to pursue education and professional careers. One potential down side to this situation is that women find themselves putting off starting a family until they complete their education and feel comfortable in their employment. In many cases this can extend into the woman’s late 30’s or even early 40’s.   Advanced maternal age may also have negative effects on fertility and the outcomes of a successful pregnancy. Considering all the factors, a woman should consider putting off starting a family and build a career as long as she has educated herself on all the risks of advanced maternal age.For years, women have been under the assumption that as long as they were bearing children under the age of 35, fertility and child mortality were at a minimum.   Recent studies have shown that this assumption is far from the truth and may eliminate childbearing for those women who wait into their late 30 ’s and early 40’s to start having children.   Education for women by gynecologists and obstetricians has been insufficient and most women are â€Å". . . surprised—even shocked—to learn that fertility begins to fall in their late 20’s (Hatcher, 2002).†Ã‚   Most women are finding out too late that they have simply put off having children too long and are now unable to bear children without intervention.   Fertility treatments are an expensive option, but are only available to those that can afford the treatments that insurance does not cover.Pregnancies that do occur at advanced maternal age have lower success rates.   Increased maternal age, typically over the age of 35, carries higher chances of miscarriage; higher increases in pregnancy complications like high blood pressure, diabetes, and placental problems; and increased chance of having a child with a chromosomal disorder (Children’s Specialist, 2007).   The good news is that medical advances in prenatal and perinatal care have diminished the effects that many of these complications have on pregnancies at advanced maternal age.   Safe pregnancies after the age of 35 are occurring at much higher rates with advanced blood testing and ultrasounds that allow early detection and treatment of potential problems.For many modern women, pursuing education and professional careers are the norm.   More women than ever in history are pursuing careers, not just jobs that add extra income.   Most career paths take years to build in order to reach the top of success.   The drive to achieve and succeed has pushed many women toward putting off starting a family till their careers are firmly on track.   With medical care helping to make child bearing in later years safer, women are choosing to put careers before family.   There are many advantages for women to wait to start a family:Financial stability Relationship stability Increased maturity Increased l ife experiences Larger support networks Better education Although these advantages may be present for a younger mother, the chance of a woman having all the advantages increases with age.   These advantages allow the mother to provide the best possible start for the child and to be the best mother she has the potential to be.The dilemma remains that when women take themselves out of the workforce to bear a child, a disadvantage occurs when compared to male counterparts.   An argument can be made that a woman with an established career and older age may have a better chance of regaining status once she returns to work due to her previous proven results and successes.   A younger woman just starting out in a career and taking a leave of absence to bear a child will not have a consistent track record to fall back on once she returns to work.   The advantage that an advance maternal age woman has may be the difference between a successful return to a career rather than being pas sed over for those who are not choosing to bear children.  Ã‚   The dilemma to put off childbearing looms large for many career women and must be considered along with the risks of advanced maternal age.There is hope for women who choose to honor both children and careers.   Proper education, healthy lifestyles, current medical advances, and pure determination help women of advanced maternal age have the balanced lives they desire.   While it is true that fertility declines in the late 20’s and that â€Å". . . women perform best at childbearing when they are young. . . (Gosden, 1995)†, these factors should not be the only consideration when choosing between careers and families.   â€Å"For reasons still far from clear, human evolution has allowed the female reproductive system to age faster than other body parts (Gosden, 1995).†Ã‚   The mental aspect of child rearing and career advancement need to be fully considered.   Physically, advanced maternal age does carry risks to both mother and fetus, but medical advances have severely reduced the chances of unsuccessful pregnancy outcomes.   Mentally, women who have built successful careers are better fit to raise children in later years rather than rushing to bear children in early years to avoid the physical risk.In all, advanced maternal age carries risks with fertility and successful pregnancy outcomes, but as long as the woman is educated on these risks, putting off child bearing should be considered in order to foster a successful career.   Medical advances have decreased pregnancy risks and advanced maternal age women should take full advantage to have a balanced life filled with both career and family.ReferencesChildren’s Specialists. 2007. Pregnancy over the Age of 35.   San Diego Perinatal Center.     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Accessed on February 12, 2007 from   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://childrensspecialists.com/body.cfm?id=460#Top.Gosden, R. 1995. Delayed Childbe aring. BMJ.   Accessed on February 12, 2007 from   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/311/7020/1585.Hatcher, T. 2002. Careers and Babies: Fertility Decline Underscores Dilemma.   CNN Health   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   May 2, 2002. Accessed on February 12, 2007 from http://archives.cnn.com/2002/HEALTH/04/30/fertility.women/index.html .

Political Events and Shipping Demand Essay

Introduction Modern shipping is the life-blood of the world; without it, much of the demand for imports and exports would not be met. In 2006, world seaborne trade was estimated to have reached 30,686 billion ton-miles, having grown by 5. 5% over the previous year. Despite the prevalence of air transport, up to 90% of world trade is carried over the oceans in humble ships. The demand for seaborne trade is driven primarily by the world economy; various industries produce the goods that need to reach different parts of the world. In its most recent World Economic Outlook , the International Monetary Fund (IMF) forecasted global growth of 3. per cent for the rest of 2008, lower by 0. 2 per cent from the previous month’s estimate. In spite of the dip, the world economy is still growing annually, led by the emerging markets that are hungry for resources to fuel their growth. Beyond the economy, there are several other factors that determine demand for shipping. This paper seeks to evaluate the role of political events and its impact. In addition, it seeks to look into which commodity is most affected by such incidents. In his book, Maritime Economics, Martin Stopford writes that ‘no discussion of sea transport demand would be complete without reference to the impact of politics’. In the following paragraphs, this paper will address the main types of events that affect shipping demand both positively and adversely. 2. 0Political events that have affected shipping demand the most 2. 1Opening-up of the Chinese economy The accession of China into the ranks of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and Beijing winning the bid to host the Olympics in 2001 were events that had large political motivations and caused a tremendous rise in demand for shipping. Since then, China’s economy has seen astronomical growth. In order to fuel this development, the country has increased both its imports and exports in almost every industry. This has taken the world by storm as countries the world over compete to feed and fuel the world’s most populous country. Hence, seaborne trade and demand for shipping worldwide has been skyrocketing as a result of China’s booming economy. 2. 2War and the economic embargoes Conversely, war and economic embargoes and sanctions are the leading cause of a drop in maritime activity. In broad terms, the hostilities in the Middle-East region have led to disruptions in movements of oil shipments to the developed world. In the 1950s, the Suez Crisis between Britain, France and Israel against Egypt, led to the diversion of ships around the Cape of Good Hope to avoid the tensions. Two decades later on 17 October 1973, the ongoing Yam Kippur War caused the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries to stop shipping oil to nations that supported Israel’s war efforts. The impact of this embargo on shipping was the collapse of the oil tanker market and led to a series of recessions and periods of high inflation that persisted until the 1980s. Other examples would include the Korean War in 1950 and the Gulf War in the early 1990s. . 0Commodities affected Crude oil accounted for 26. 9 per cent of total goods loaded in 2006. Due to the sheer quantity of oil being shipped worldwide, any political event jeopardizing seaborne trade would usually entail oil shipments being affected. This is because the resource is abundant in only certain parts of the world; the Middle-East is one such region that is plagued with rogue political regimes and instability. In the above-mentioned events in the region, the hostilities resulted in disruptions to the oil trade and consequently, oil price. This would be discussed in the section on Iran. Another sector that would be affected would be the metal industry trades and in particular, that of iron ore. Western Australia and Brazil are major exporters of iron ore to growing markets like China which need it for its continued development. 4. 0Opening of China’s economy Since the 1970s, China has been gradually introducing economic reforms and providing enterprises with autonomy. However, it was only in the last 2 decades that the world’s 2nd largest economy has opened itself up to greater foreign investment and world trade. This was carried out through the relaxation of import and export controls and trade reforms in the form of reduced tariffs. All this led to a significant milestone for China and the world – its ascension into the ranks of the WTO on 11 December 2001. In addition, Beijing won the bid to host the 2008 Olympics that same year. These 2 events have set the stage for China’s rapid development. In the following paragraphs, this paper will explain its effects on the world and global trade and shipping. Based on a working paper by the IMF written in 2004, the international impact of China’s ascension into the WTO is far reaching. Firstly, sustaining the growth of China would provide benefits to its trading partners; beyond the processing of trade, there has been significant growth in imports for domestic use and outbound tourism. Secondly, China’s insatiable thirst for energy and metal imports have since fuelled the rapid rise in imports of such commodities. Lastly, multinational companies are tapping into the large domestic market especially with the freeing up of the country’s banking sector. This paper believes that China’s meteoric rise over the last two decades and more significantly, since the dawn of the new millennia, have created a surge in demand for world seaborne trade and shipping. 4. 1China’s role in transforming Western Australia and beyond As a result of China’s booming steel industry, Australian exports of iron ore to China reached more than A$4 billion last year. BHP Billiton and Rio Tinto, two of the world’s largest resource companies, share the metal-rich Pilbara of Western Australia to feed China’s demand. The latter is hoping to double its 2007 iron-ore production in four years. This mining boom in the traditionally ‘sleepy’ side of Australia spells good news for its economy and residents. In an interview with the Economist , Eric Ripper, finance minister of Western Australia, said that his state has been fighting to bring in a A$9 million surplus seven years ago. Last year, the country’s largest state (by land area) grew by 6. 3%, twice that of the entire country. In addition, it now boasts a healthy surplus of A$2 billion. Besides iron ore, China has a tremendous hunger for other natural resources. All across the world, Chinese firms are finding new sources for crude oil, natural gas, metal and coal. Ships have been queuing off Newcastle in Australia to load cargo bound for China; at one point in June 2007, the queue was 79 ships long . In short, the rise in import demand by the Mainland has helped countries in Latin America and Africa grow their own economy. Another country that has seen business grow is the shipping giant of Greece. 60 per cent of China’s imports of raw materials and energy are carried on the backs of Greek ships. Greek ship owners want to capitalize and many have made orders to build ships in China which has caused the order books of the large manufacturers to bulge and many smaller players to join in the fray. . 2China’s effect on shipping demand In terms of shipping, China is a force to be reckoned with. Just 2 years after joining the WTO, China handled 48 million twenty-foot equivalent units (TEU) in 2003, an increase of 11 million TEUs the year before. This made the country the largest container shipping market for the first time with both Sh anghai and Shenzhen joining the mega-port league of over 10 million TEUs throughputs . On two of the most important container trades from Asia to North America and Europe, mainland China and Hong Kong corner 60 per cent of the market share. More recently, with an increasing portion of China’s imports of oil products coming from Latin America and West Africa, ton-miles demanded associated with this trade has increased. Referring back to the example of Australian iron ore, China’s high volumes mean that Chinese companies are sourcing for metals from further abroad such as Brazil. In addition, China has always been a net exporter of coal. However, in the last few years, China has become a net importer; this forces its neighbors to source for coal from further afield. All these factors serve to increase ton-miles demanded. It is important to note that though ton-miles demanded may increase, actual volume may remain unchanged. 5. 0Iran and the Strait of Hormuz The on-going tension between Israel, the United States of America (USA) and Iran over its suspected nuclear-weapons programme has brought about fluctuations in oil prices in recent times. Several factors have made this all the more pressing in the last few months. These include a weakening Bush administration, Iran’s continued uranium-enrichment programme, a lackluster Western diplomatic approach to handling the situation and Israel’s jitters have raised the idea of a possible war in the Middle-East. In retaliation to suggestions of a military strike, Iran has threatened to cut oil exports and close the Strait of Hormuz . This strait’s importance lies in that it is the only viable path for much of the oil from the gulf to reach the rest of the world. By comparison, the Suez and Panama Canals are passages that have alternative albeit costlier, routes. A horseshoe-shaped body of water that stretches between Iran and the northern tip of Oman, the Strait is the only passage in and out of the Gulf. Every day, around 50 tankers carry between 4 million and 17 million barrels of oil and oil products through the 180km-long strait – roughly 40 per cent of the world’s internationally traded supplies . If Iran were able to close this waterway by use of anti-ship missiles, only 3 million barrels would be able to be diverted via the Red Sea. Thus, oil and oil product shipment would be greatly hit worldwide. In addition to oil, Jebel Ali, a port-town in the United Arab Emir ates, handles about half of all maritime trade between Europe and Asia. Currently, it is the largest port between Rotterdam and Singapore. Large portions of what enters some of these free zones in the gulf are transshipped to other parts of the world. Experts who have monitored the Suez Crisis in the 1950s and how it led to the Six-Day War understand that such an action from Iran would result in the Middle-East suffering economically. On a larger scale, the world would be faced with supply cuts in almost all goods. 6. 0Maritime terrorism Another threat to the maritime industry is terrorism at sea. Terrorism is broadly defined as attacks to create fear and often have an underlying belief that the terrorists want to spread. Since the world-changing September 11th attacks on the United States of America in 2001, many other acts of violence have been carried out with ships as targets. An example would be the infamous Al-Qaeda attack on the French oil tanker, the Limburg, in Yemen in 2002. Such attacks create not only a sense of uncertainty in the shipping industry, but have raised the costs of shipping as well. In the case of the Limburg, the insurance payout reached US$70 million . This example highlights the trend of insurance companies charging higher insurance premiums to shipping companies whose ships sail through more ‘dangerous’ waters. As a result, shipping cost has risen over the years and this has led to a dip in demand. Amongst the main trunk routes that ships often ply, the greatest number of such incidents happens in the South China Sea and the Straits of Malacca. These acts of terror also do not differentiate between the types of ships they target; almost everything from boats to tankers has been looted for their cargo and entire ships stolen. This paper would like to caution that the distinction between maritime terrorism and piracy is blurring. 7. 0Conclusion This paper has looked at examples of how political events have caused a stir in the maritime world. This is largely a result of the correlation between world trade, shipping and movement of commodities. Such incidents can spark both a decrease as well as an increase in demand for shipping. In the case of China’s reforms towards a more open economy, trade between this country and the rest of the world has increased dramatically. This has spurred the shipping industry not just in terms of seaborne trade but in other forms such as ports and shipbuilding. Beyond its shores, it has helped to lift the economies of countries that enjoy a high level of trade with China. On the other hand, the tensions in the Middle-East have brought about uncertainty throughout the world over oil prices and world trade. The strategic position of the most hostile nations in the region has given them leverage over the Western world in terms of threats to block the major waterway, the Strait of Hormuz. Lastly, the concerns over maritime safety and rising insurance costs to cover ships and their owners have caused a dip in demand for shipping. This is because of the higher costs now associated with shipping; it is intuitive yet unfortunate that the world’s major shipping routes are also the most dangerous.

The pros and cons of Globalization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

The pros and cons of Globalization - Essay Example addition a crucial debate is continuously rising on weighing the positive and negative impacts of globalization and exploring the people who are directly or indirectly influenced by the changes brought in by this concept. Globalization is a comprehensive and broad topic and covers a huge list of important issues including economic, social, political, cultural, religious and moral etc. The definition of globalization is also defined in the light of all these perspectives. As it is defined by James Rosenau, a political scientist, as as "a label that is presently in vogue to account for peoples, activities, norms, ideas, goods, services, and currencies that are decreasingly confined to a particular geographic space and its local and established practices" (1997, p.360). Most of the researchers bordered their research on the economic impacts of globalization. It is undoubtedly clear that globalization has impacted the overall economic situation of the current world. However, the social, political and other areas also require attention as globalization has affected the policies, education, culture and overall social structure of the states. The economic aspects of globalization are not limited to its effects on microenvironment but it has affected markets on a macro level. The microeconomic effects refer to the technological advancements and the impact at individual firm levels, whereas, the macroeconomic effects involve the collaborative analysis of markets for business purposes (Oman, 1994). The list of positive aspects of globalization includes the excess availability of external finance. This excess amount of finance is helpful especially for the developing countries. The excess availability of excess finance from external sources is evidenced by the IMF, Direction of Trade Statistics Yearbook and World Bank, Global Development Finance, 1999. For instance the increase in capital flows is observed in the East Asia Pacific from 15.8 in 1980 to 36.3 1997.

Ayuba Suleiman Diallo Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Ayuba Suleiman Diallo - Essay Example ebruary 1730, upon hearing that there was a ship docked at the Gambia River, Ayuba’s father sent him to sell two slaves to the captain of the ship, he was also to buy paper and other necessities.2 During the trade, Ayuba could agree on a price with the captain of the ship, Captain Pike. He instead decided to cross the river to the country of Mandingoes who were the enemy of the people of Futa and sold the slaves to another African trader who bought them for two cows.3 On his return home, a group of Mandingoes raider captured and enslaved him. The raiders shaved Ayuba’s head, a sign of indignity, so as to appear like the other slaves.4 After all this, they went ahead and sold him as a slave to the whites. Ironically, the buyer was Captain Pike, the same buyer that he had tried to negotiate a price with for the two slaves he had earlier been sent to sell by his father. After some period of trading at river Gambia, Captain Pike’s ship sailed, and in it was Ayuba Suleiman Diallo. According to Bluett’s memoir, the ship was heading to Maryland, a British colony on the North America. On board the ship, Ayuba found means to talk to the captain, he told him that he was the same man whom they had tried to negotiate a price for the two slaves some days back.5 Captain Pike, gave Ayuba a chance to send a message to his father explaining the situation and asking for help. This message could not reach his father before it was too late for they were close to docking at Maryland. Upon arrival, Ayuba and the other slaves were delivered to their new owner, Mr. Rachel Denton. During the journey to London, Ayuba was very devoted and consistent in prayers.6 He also learnt English. Upon arrival in England, he was offered a place to stay by Captain Hunt, who was his host. At this period, they had parted with Mr. Bluett, but when he, Ayuba, heard a rumor that Mr. Hunt was planning to sell him contacted Mr. Bluett and told him of the rumor. Mr. Bluett offered him refuge in

Drug Trafficking Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Drug Trafficking - Research Paper Example This trade is secretly done in the black market, but if any person is caught dealing or consuming illegal drug he will have to face long tenure in jail. Drug trafficking is the most profitable trade in the world which involves very powerful people, who are well funded had possess heavy arms to defend themselves (Sherman, 2010, pp. 7-9). Drug trafficking is an international issue. The violence that culminates through drug trafficking is a problem in United States because each group traffics drug in their own specific area and very often they get involved in a fight with each other and also with the police. History and Examples The origin of drug trafficking in United States varied from state to state. In Mexico, the drug trafficking trade began during the 1990s (Hamnett, 2006, p.7). In Latin America and Mexico the drug trafficking trade began during the 1980s. The drug trafficking in Cuba started from 1920. During the year 1980, the economic condition of Latin America was crucial. Due to the major increase in unemployment and public debt, it was discovered that smuggling of drugs will be more profitable which will help to develop the financial condition of the state. Smuggling of drugs especially cocaine lead to an increase in criminal activity which eventually formed an epidemic in the United States. Then President Ronald Reagan affirmed a war against drug trafficking in the 1982. Lot of policies was made to abolish the practice of drug trafficking in Latin America but it failed badly. More loss in economy drew the peasants especially the poverty stricken people to reap coca leaves. These leaves were formed into a paste and were transported to Columbia for final processing. Drug trafficking in Columbia facilitated employment to thousands of citizens and acquired large amount of profit. Most of the profit remained in United States and Europe. Speedy growth of unofficial economic sector took place in Latin America due to the increase in drug trafficking. Massive trade in illegal narcotics started. Large amount of people are employed to work in this illegal business. Latin America remained a largest producer of narcotics into United States (La Rosa and Mejia, 2006, p. 140). The Action of Law in Drug Trafficking Cases Gradually narcotic trafficker violence became a problem that could not be ignored by the Columbian government. US adopted an anti-drug policy to control this situation. In the year 1986, the President formed a National Security Decision Directive (NSDD) that involved military power to combat against narcotic situation. Huge financial resources were spent to prevent the use of drugs. Drug supply was reduced in the country and became very expensive for consumption. The products were seized from the drug smugglers. U.S Congress started emphasizing on the source of supply of the narcotic drug and addiction problem in the country. Legal codes and law was changed in Columbia. With the help of military force Columbia was successful in capturing drugs. Farmers were incited to cultivate coffee rather than coca leaves. Traffickers became a danger to the country because they caused mortal threats. Public strongly protested against the traffickers. Government took a constructive action against the traffickers (Menzel, 2000, pp. 40-66). Views on Drug Trafficking According to The President’

Autobiographical gender socialization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Autobiographical gender socialization - Essay Example While I was a homemaker, I was stigmatised by the community and with no any forecast. As a medical student, I am regarded as a valuable woman, and my life has been full of joy. The similarity of cooking soup portrays my life has a homemaker. On the other hand, writing papers shows my life as a medical student. Introduction A gender-based examination of the relation between the need to be the ultimate writer with the urge to be the ultimate soup maker is the thesis of this paper. The information given is autobiographical. My goal is to express my changing role from a homemaker, to a doctor who is successful in the area of academics. Gender plays a crucial role by virtue of that the homemaker’s work of preparing soup is feminized in community, whereas the medical’s student work of writing papers is masculine. To start with, a literature review on the duty of a woman and the merit of female’s voice will be given (Watson 432). According to this review, a clear pictur e of my changing responsibility from that of a homemaker to a medical student will be presented. Preparing soup originates from a disciplinary system and is seen as a kind of individual –construction, whereas writing papers is a resistant system and a self-reconstruction. These two opposing life experiences assist to demonstrate how a gender point of view affects my insight of women’s importance in the community. ... First, preparing soup helped to keep my daughter’s nutritional health and give a disciplinary system in my determination to be the best mother. Second, that is from a qualitative perspective, in my society, being a perfect and outstanding wife is seen as a need for the growth of the kid admirable characteristics such as joyfulness and cheerfulness. This positive approach and hopeful mannerism can be recognized by consuming the correct nutrition soup. Third, from a quantitative point of view, the more weight my daughter realized, the more kinds of soups I had to prepare for him (Kosta 212). Therefore, the measurable results of maintaining my daughter health through the means of preparing soup could be the most useful pointer of whether I was a perfect, exceptional or even a successful homemaker in my community. Metaphorically, preparing soup showed the love and care I had for my daughter, which had gone far beyond merely providing her necessity for food. To a wide extent, carin g out this activity was an attempt to obey the rules of social expectations of a woman’s role. In addition, the capability to prepare soup was the criteria for determining whether I was the best mother. In terms of the marital perspective, preparing soup became a way of raising my bargaining power with my husband according to tradition, which showed that a well-educated man believes that the best wife has to understand how to cook and be willing to prepare soup for the family members every day. Preparing soup is regarded as a homemaker’s main significant, activity as related to other forms of house activities, which includes washing utensils, ironing clothes and sweeping the floor. This is because it may significantly influence the health of the

The Increase in the Frequency of Involvement of Ex-Mental Patients in Case Study

The Increase in the Frequency of Involvement of Ex-Mental Patients in the Criminal Justice System - Case Study Example The objective of this study is to determine the effect of deinstitutionalization on the frequency of involvement of ex-mental patients in the criminal justice system through an analysis or review of available data and information on private and public mental hospital capacities, and crime rates in purposively selected U.S. inner-cities. In the advent of deinstitutionalization, several former mental patients have turned out to be considerably involved with the criminal justice system, which is an area they are especially unprepared to deal with. Researchers and observers alike, depending on their specific concern in the issue, have thus far predisposed to examine this outcome of the process of deinstitutionalization in one of two ways (LaFond & Durham, 1992). First, the mainstream media have took hold of particular offenses involving the abrupt and dramatic murder of unsuspecting victims by sadistic murderers, whom they readily recognized as ‘escaped lunatics’ or ‘psychos on a rampage’ (LaFond & Durham, 1992, 33); labels that intricately connects the suspected murderer to mental disorder. Second, mental health practitioners have been swift to reveal what they see as the prejudice and pointless imprisonment of mentally ill people for minor offences, which the experts typify as the unnecessary interference of the criminal justice system into the area of mental health (ibid). Both interpretations of reality have a generally central point of view that deinstitutionalization is at the core of the predicament; furthermore, both perspectives sensibly give rise to a claim for rehospitalization of people with mental disorder, either for the reason that they are incapable of living in civilized society or quite weak to survive a narrow-minded intolerance and mistreatment of society (LaFond & Durham, 1992). The root is identical, the solution is identical, and the only thing that has been inadequate is empirical research of what we all believe to be obvious: ‘that deinstitutionalized mental patients either are criminals or are treated like criminals’ (Bean, 2003, 141).  

Simple 1 page journal entry on Kate Chopin Essay

Simple 1 page journal entry on Kate Chopin - Essay Example Chopin has also shown in the novel that women of that time had strong desires of autonomy and individuality but they were hardly able to fulfill those desires. In this short story, Chopin raised some important issues, which play their roles in the life of a woman. Some of those issues include importance of love and sex in marriage, factors of guilt and honesty, and sexual desires of women. Chopin revealed that women of that time had less freedom and they used to fulfill their desires using unconventional means. In this story, Chopin revealed that women of the late 19th century although had sexual desires but they used to keep their desires hidden because of the respect and esteem they had for themselves. In the view of Chopin, lives of the women in the late 19th century were focused towards their maternal roles and they had less freedom of expressing their sexual desires. Basu, Harsha. â€Å"Kate Chopins The Awakening: Role of Mademoiselle Reisz in Edna Pontelliers Awakening.† Ezinearticles.com, 21 Jan. 2011. Web. 30 Jul. 2011.

Karl Marx and Capitalism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Karl Marx and Capitalism - Essay Example The basic premise of Marx’s theory about the value of labor is the claim that the value of a commodity is defined by the average number of labor-hours that go into its production. Then, the profit a capitalist makes when such a commodity is sold is what forms the surplus value of the commodity, and is not his rightful share but what he makes by cheating the laborer. The capitalist buys labour-power in order to use it; and labour-power in use is labour itself. † (Kelso, 2005, n.p.) Here, if one were to take into account the scientific and technological developments the world has seen since the industrial revolution, we find that it’s the capital-provider who becomes the rightful recipient of the profits made by them by selling the product. Let me elaborate. With the advancement of technology, we have seen times, as much as we are seeing now, the production of machines that create more machines, automated ones too, which create a commodity that is sold. The machines themselves form a commodity too. Thus the profits that are brought home would be deserved by the ones that produced them: the machines which are owned by the capitalist, and hence the profit should go to him or her. Besides, if a product’s value were to be defined by the number of labor-hours that go into it’s making, then the fundamental paradox that is brought out is an interesting one: how can a product, say, an automated coffee-maker be of such a low value as the number of man-hours a labourer spends in operating the machine that makes it?

Manager interview Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Manager interview - Essay Example Richard Branson has expanded his entrepreneurial efforts and diversified his companies to more than 30 countries that include Canada, Australia, United Kingdom, United States, Europe and South Africa. Some of the companies under Virgin Group include Virgin Atlantic airlines, Virgin Media, Virgin Trains, Virgin Music, Virgin Radio, Virgin mobile USA, Virgin Cola, and Virgin Brides (Hellriegel and Slocum 35). Branson engages in several sporting activities as evidenced by crossing of the Atlantic in Virgin Atlantic Challenger II in 1986, hot air balloon crossing in 1987 and sponsorship of various sporting events and teams across the world. Richard Branson is in the top management of Virgin Group and has both human skills and conceptual skills. He has diversified the operations of the companies through various strategies in order to attain high global market share. He has effectively managed organizational behavior through influencing the efforts of employees, transformational leadership , commitment to the organizational objective, motivating the staff and ensuring effective communication in the organization. Accordingly, Richard Branson is good at decision-making and management of stress in the organization (Hellriegel and Slocum 36). ... Answer: Richard Branson claimed that he is capable of controlling negative feelings and emotions. He claimed that he was open to challenges, new experiences and perceives failures as learning opportunities. Richard Branson went further to assert that emotional intelligence entails self-awareness, respect for others and emotional stability in order to regulate both one’s emotions and those of colleagues in the organization. . c) What are the critical values that are central to your success as a business leader? Answer: He outlined that commitment, self-confidence, tolerance, persuasiveness and positive attitude are some of the values that have enabled him grow successful enterprises and enter competitive niche markets across several industries. He claimed that his commitment to success is evident in his record-breaking crossing of Virgin Atlantic and numerous innovative products that Virgin Group has offered to its clients. d) How do you deal and handle criticism? Answer: He cl aimed that he perceives criticism as productive and essential to innovativeness and creativity. He is positive about constructive criticism and is open to challenges and new ideas that aim at ensuring organizational learning and implementation of innovative solutions to various societal problems. e) What is your approach to management of conflicts in your organization? Answer: Richard Branson started by outlining that conflicts in the organization are inevitable due to task conflicts, differences in personality, cultural differences and differing opinions. He claimed that he is capable of making conflicts constructive through enabling conflicting parties understand the sources of conflicts, encouraging cooperation and collaboration in solving the conflicts

Recruitment Strategy and Job Offer Process Essay Example for Free

Recruitment Strategy and Job Offer Process Essay Organizations such as education, business and engineering all use diverse recruitment techniques as their operations transform and the demand for employees vary, based on the direction in which the organization is headed. This paper will study in detail business establishments and how they use their recruitment strategy to fill job vacancies. In addition, the paper will select and/or suggest which would be the best recruitment strategy to achieve the goal of drawing qualified personnel from within this industry. Finally, this paper will detail the process to be used in offering a job to an applicant. The first phase of recruitment is deciding on the need for personnel to fill current or future job openings. In business establishments, it is essential for a company to recognize whether an open or targeted recruitment strategy is effective, and to understand which one will succeed in meeting the company’s requirements. If there is no urgency in finding suitable candidates for the position, then a better option would be an open recruitment policy (Mesmer, 1999). For instance, if a company has to fill more than 35 vacancies, the only real option for it is to choose an open recruitment policy. The open recruitment policy helps in attracting a number of applicants including an assorted group of people (Heinemann Judge, 2009). In this way, the organization can obtain pools of potential employees with differing standards of knowledge, skills, aptitudes other characteristics (KSAOs) from which they can select to fill vacancies. â€Å"If a business is required to recruit as many people as possible within a limited period, a sizeable applicant pool often supplies a company with a good number of personnel to fill vacancies† (â€Å"Recruiting practices,†1995). Hiring via newspaper, television, job fairs, radio and media channels will attract numerous candidates needed to fill several vacancies in businesses. The possibility of skimming a broad applicant pool reduces the company’s ability to appraise every application, resulting in triggering high future attrition rates (Soberg Bennington, 2009). Employing the open recruitment policy will not initiate a candidate pool with specific skills or experience levels as witnessed with the targeted recruitment policy. However, when organizational requirements demand specific skills, education, or experience levels, a business will adopt a targeted recruitment policy. Positive action also calls for a company to target a particular segment of the labor force like minority groups (Heneman Judge, 2006). After identifying a specific target, a business may take the help of a talent management team equipped to win over a predetermined sort of applicant (â€Å"CTS strengthens†, 2010). For instance, a company in need of a web designer may advertise available job positions online rather than via the radio or other media channels. With technological advances, the Internet is fast becoming a cost-effect means of hiring, with advertising targeted at specific group of candidates. For a company on the lookout for a certain type of applicant, the target recruitment policy is the best method to use. With the evolving of businesses, organizations should use ingenious recruitment strategies to surface from the conventional â€Å"talent pools† which as Kemsley states are approached with caution and suspicion for assistance (2009). Businesses are becoming very choosy in their hiring methods when recruiting in the present economic scenario. They are recruiting based on business requirements; for instance, an accounting firm which is considering future job vacancies, may approach local educational institutions and target college students who are enrolled currently as accounting majors. The accounting firm then can target specific sub-groups within that group by seeking students with a specific GPA grade point average, thus making certain that the company can hire new recruits with the requisite job qualifications. â€Å"In the same way, a business specializing in health care can adopt a recruitment strategy targeting personnel in the healthcare sector, thereby guaranteeing the solicitation of candidates with healthcare experience† (â€Å"Online health,† 2000). For some business establishments, limiting their options to a single recruitment strategy is bad. When a business does not have a recruitment deadline, the organization can gain from a good blend of open targeted recruitment policies. For most businesses, using an open recruitment policy enables the company to fill vacancies which are not key positions like support staff. When organizational needs demand a highly qualified, trained, or experienced person, then it’s advantageous to use t he target recruitment policy. The subsequent phase of recruitment after the interview selection process is the job offer. Developing and extending a job offer can either be a simple task or a risky endeavor. If the business demands that numerous vacancies should be filled without any delay, the employment offer process is quite simple and the company faces no real risks. With a sizeable applicant pool, a company can extend basic job offers with minimal emphasis on bonus payments or incentives. However, where a business needs specialized skills, the business should know what the competition is offering employees with similar skills set. The greater the demands a company places on applicant qualifications, the more specialized are the job qualifications and the greater the risk involved in the employment offer process. When trying to lure a competitor’s employee, the company should be willing to provide what best fits such an employee’s requirements with no promise of long-term gains for the organization. If the receiver is undecided about accepting the employment offer, the company should decide if it’s willing to significantly change the employment offer in such a way that the receiver cannot turn it down. Finalizing the employment offer demands seeing all aspects of incentives/benefits verbally offered are properly documented. Moreover, the business must make certain that the job offer is not in violation of any federal or state laws. In business industries, limiting recruiting options to a single strategy is not beneficial; however, if a business has no recruitment deadlines, it can benefit greatly from using a mix of open targeted recruitment policies. For most organizations, using an open recruitment policy enables them to fill job vacancies which are not key positions like support staff. Where an organization requires candidates with specialized skills or higher education or greater experience, then it’s profitable to use the target recruitment policy. Recognizing the differences in these two strategies enables a business to avail of the optimum recruitment strategy to meet the organizational requirements prevailing at that time. References CTS strengthen recruiting efforts with talent coordination teams. (2010, July 3). Health Wellness Resource Center Alternative Health Module. Kemsley, N. (2009). Employee-centric markets: A different direction. People and Strategy. New York: 2009. Vol. 32(3), p. 14. Heneman, G. H., Judge, A. T. (2006). Staffing Organizations (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Messmer, M. (1999, September). Developing a strategic staffing plan. National Public Accountant, 44(7), 20. Online health care recruiting company makes debut. (2000, July 3). The Enterprise, p. 7. Soberg, A., Bennington, A. (2009). Workforce planning: implications for healthcare in Canada and elsewhere. People and Strategy. New York: 2009, 32(3), 26. Recruiting practices changing. (1995, November). Physician Executive, 21(11), 4.

Language Is Rule-Governed

Language Is Rule-Governed Wittgenstein stated that his aim in philosophy was to show the fly the way out of the fly-bottle that is, to lead us out of the web of misconceptions and confusions that cloud our understanding. He argued that our confusion lay in our misunderstanding of language and the rules that govern its use. This misunderstanding resulted from the assumptions of traditional Western Philosophy which are based on a Cartesian theory of mind, a Platonist conception of reality and an Augustinian view of language. These assumptions led to the belief that the private mental realm was the primary source of language, the essential function of language was to name objects, and the rules of language were set in a fixed pattern of application respectively. As this account of rules relies on their having a fixed content, the only way to follow these rules is to discern their meaning by finding an appropriate mediating interpretation. Once the rules have been interpreted correctly, they would then disclose h ow they should be applied. Wittgenstein argued that these assumptions cloud the true nature of rule-following and meaning, leaving them vulnerable to scepticism as we lay down rules, a technique for playing a game, and that then, when we follow the rules, things dont turn out as we had assumed. So that we are, as it were, entangled in our own rules.  [2]  The issue that Wittgenstein raises is if we can argue that any action can be interpreted as acting in accordance with a rule, how can we ever know if we are following a rule correctly and therefore, how can we justify that our use of language holds any meaning? This reveals the flaws in the traditional belief that it is the rules themselves that act as the normative standards by which we discern whether or not our use of language is correct. Therefore, we must look for another source of normativity in order to preserve the notion of meaning. In light of Wittgensteins view that following a rule is a practice  [3]  which is analogous to obeying an order  [4]  , I believe that his account of language establishes it as rule-governed by situating the requisite justification and normativity in the linguistic community. These requisites are met in Wittgensteins account as when we are taught a rule we are also trained to follow it in a particular way determined by the linguistic community of which we are a member. I will expound this view by firstly looking at the rule-following considerations as found in 185 and 201 to explicate Wittgensteins view that we cannot establish how to follow a rule correctly by looking at the rule itself, but rather we must examine at how the rule is applied as part of a communal practice. I will then use Meredith Williams critique of Saul Kripkes sceptical solution to the paradox and her argument for a communitarian view of Wittgensteins account of rule-following to discuss what a socially e mbedded justification and standard of normativity might entail. Following from this I will go on to examine John McDowells critique of Crispin Wrights anti-realism in order to discuss how a social normative standard can be established through the shared understandings held by a linguistic community. When describing the purpose of the rule-following considerations, Wittgenstein stated that what we are destroying is nothing but houses of cards and we are clearing up the ground of language on which they stand  [5]  by which he means that through a re-evaluation the nature of language we may dissolve the empty questions that traditional philosophy had been concerned with, including the question of what constitutes meaning. Wittgenstein aimed to achieve this by reminding the reader that rule-following cannot be a mental process by which we discern the meaning of the rule and then establish a set pattern of application. Perhaps the most important issue with the traditional view of rule-following that Wittgensteins attack brings to light is the regress of interpretation. Wittgenstein highlights this flaw in the belief that interpretation necessarily clarifies the content of a rule and provides a method of application. He does so by stating that there is no reason why an interpretat ion may not be just as ambiguous as the rule itself and therefore may also be subject to the same interpretative process as the rule. No one interpretation is going to be unambiguous in every situation to every individual. Therefore, the move to symbolic language does not clarify the rules contents, it simply leads to a regress as in this chain of reasoning we place one interpretation behind another as if each one contented us at least for a moment, until we thought of yet another lying behind it.  [6]  This regress means firstly that there is no ultimate justification to be found through interpretation, and secondly that the countless interpretations that a rule may be subject to renders the rule meaningless. From this Wittgenstein concludes that there is a way of grasping a rule which is not an interpretation  [7]  , meaning that understanding is not always aligned with the act of interpretation and rule-following does not necessarily involve a mediating interpretation bet ween the rule and its application. A second challenge uses the discrepancy between the infinite applications of a rule and the finite amount of times we can observe this application. This discrepancy shows that we cannot regard our understanding of a rule as the grasping of a set pattern of application that we must replicate in every future circumstance. Wittgenstein explicates this challenge in his deviant learner example in paragraph 185, in which a student seems to be following a numerical series +2 correctly up until he reaches 1,000 where he then changes to the series of +4. If the teacher had made the student stop following the series before 1,000 he would have never known that the student misunderstood the rule that he had been taught. The deviant learner also brings forth the issue that for any rule applied, for example, a 100 times, we can imagine other rules that give the same results but then diverges on its 101st application. This means that we cannot conceive of the meaning of rules as an infinite set of their application and therefore it is implausible to argue that when we explain a rule that we have an infinite set in mind. Just like the teacher in the deviant learner example, we may believe that someone has mastered the application of a rule, up until the point where they begin to get it wrong. This may happen at any point through a sequence and thus there is no way of knowing for certain if the person has understood the rule. Therefore, if we represent rules as infinite sets of applications but we only deal with finite numbers of these applications we can never be sure that we have successfully taught the rule, or are following it correctly ourselves. This means that if we wish to examine rules through how we follow them rather than their content, we cannot regard rule-following as being guided by rails invisibly laid out to infinity  [8]  if we wish to develop any semblance of normativity. Regarding his own view of the relation between a rule, our understanding of it and our method of application, Wittgenstein uses the analogy of playing chess, stating where is the connection effected between the sense of the words lets play a game of chess and all the rules of the game? Well, in the list of rules of the game, in the teaching of it, in the everyday practice of playing  [9]  . This means that our understanding of a rule results in how we are taught to understand it and this socially constructed comprehension manifests in the action of following of the rule as part of a custom. For example, when we encounter a signpost pointing right, we react to this by turning right because there is an established custom of doing so which we are initiated into through training. As there is clearly nothing inherent in the arrow that tells us how to react to it, this custom can only have been established by the community of which we are a member. Although Wittgenstein makes it clear that he believes that how we follow a rule is how we participate in a communal custom, he recognises the problem concerning the sustainment of normativity that this view must address. If our understanding is moulded by how we are trained, what happens when two people react to their training differently and how do we know which reaction is the correct one?  [10]  As it is the community that establishes how we follow a rule, and we can make no valid reference to the rule itself, it must then be the community that decides whether an individual follows a rule correctly. However, is there any way to prove that the community can provide the normative standard required to know whether or not we are following a rule correctly? I will now address this issue, beginning with an examination of Kripkes sceptical account of rule following. Saul Kripkes discussion of Wittgensteins account of language (which he stressed was not an interpretation, but a line of thought inspired by his reading of Wittgenstein) rests on the sceptical belief that there is no mental fact that can provide an ultimate justification for our belief that we are following the same rule in the same way as we have in the past, and therefore no objective notion of meaning. Although Kripkes account has not been popular, its influence is undeniable as it is used as the point of departure for the standard approach to rule-following  [11]  . Kripke founded his sceptical version of Wittgensteins account of rules on the first challenge to the classical account that I previously discussed which he named the sceptical paradox. This was our paradox; no course of action could be determined by a rule, because every course of action can be brought into accord with the rule. The answer was: if every course of action can be brought into accord with the rule, then it can be also brought into conflict with it. And so there would be neither accord nor conflict here.  [12]   Kripke saw this issue to be, the most radical sceptical problem that philosophy has seen to date  [13]  he stated that the problem lies in that we cannot discern a fact about the mental state of an individual that can justify their belief that they are following a particular rule in the correct way. Thus, the notion of rule-following becomes meaningless. In order to explicate the problem Kripke used the quaddition example in which he asked the reader to imagine in the method of calculation quaddition where, x quus y = x + y if x, y This would mean that quus would give the same results as plus for numerous calculations, up until y In order provide a solution to the sceptical paradox, Kripke argues that Wittgenstein must look for an exterior source for justification and normativity. Kripkes Wittgenstein finds this justification by first accepting the sceptical problem and acknowledging that there can be no ultimate justification therefore the solution must be sceptical itself. From this starting point he then reduces the severity of the problem by arguing that what is required to solve the sceptical problem are not truth conditions (the facts that meanings must obtain to in order to be true), but justification conditions. These justification conditions rest on our answers to the question what is the role, and the utility in our lives of the practice of asserting (or denying) the form of words under these conditions?  [14]  In other words, we must justify our understanding of a rule by showing how we use it within our everyday lives. Our application of the rule is then evaluated by the community as to whethe r it conforms to the usual application of the rule and is therefore correct. Kripkes sceptical account of rule-following does succeed in providing a comprehensive and plausible account for how we invest meaning into the notion of rule- following through community based justification and evaluation. However, it seems that by accepting the scepticism brought to light by the by the paradox Kripke is guilty of the very misunderstanding that Wittgenstein was trying to correct. Wittgensteins rejection of the sceptical problem appears to be shown in the second paragraph of 201 in which Wittgenstein states that we thereby show that there is a way of grasping a rule which is not an interpretation, but which, from case to case application is exhibited in what we call following the rule and going against it  [15]  . From this it appears that Wittgenstein believed it was possible to reject the view that understanding is reliant on interpretation without having to accept on a sceptical theory of meaning. Meredith Williams highlights Kripkes misunderstanding, arguing t hat his belief that the apparent lack of epistemic guidance and justification for the correct application of a rule presents a genuine problem reflects a continued allegiance to the ideal expressed in the classical view  [16]  . She argues that this allegiance distorts Wittgensteins view by searching for an epistemic solution, leading Kripke to replace truth conditions with justification conditions and subjective verification with communal verification. Although Williams shares Kripkes community view of rule-following, she holds that this is not simply a sceptical solution but a genuine source of justification, stating that Wittgensteins answer to the paradox is not a sceptical throwing up of the hands with But this is what I or we do, but an appeal to the social embeddedness of rules  [17]  . She also criticizes Kripke for misunderstanding the community view by denying the authority of those who have mastered the language and forms of life that they are involved with, thus making the authority of the community arbitrary. Williams argues that Wittgenstein held an overtly communitarian view of rules, she evens goes as far as to argue that only the communitarian view can provide rules with the power to constrain the behaviour of the individual and space needed for the basic normative distinction between correct and incorrect. Williams describes the activity of rule-following as a matter of establishing a second nature  [18]  . Rules gain their power from appearing natural and inevitable, meaning that we develop an instantaneous and blind obedience to them. Blind obedience is cultivated through the training of a novice by a master wherein the novice is taught the technique of application that lies in the background and gives content to the formula as rule  [19]  . These techniques then become bedrock practices which need no epistemic justification as they are legitimised by their conformity. Williams argues that it is the blind obedience in the application of bedrock judgements and actions that create space for the rule rather than vice versa, which she calls the primacy of action. Williams argues that both the novice and the master act blindly, they are alternative blind as they are unaware of alternative actions and judgements. The Novice is blind as they unquestioningly follow the example and in struction of the master as they are aware of no other alternatives. Masters act blindly as once they have mastered the language they are blind (or no longer subject to) the verification of the community. From this Williams then argues that it is these two kinds of blindness than can give weight to the constraints that rules place upon an individual by providing the necessary foundational level needed to stop the regress of interpretation. In regards to the issue of normativity, Williams argues that the necessity of following a rule in a particular way is established through a communal regularity which constitutes the form of life against which error and mistake, truth and falsity can be discerned.  [20]  This means that the community does not provide a normative standard through its assent. Rather, it is the structure of the community or in other words, a certain history and a certain setting  [21]  which sustains the regularity of practices over time therefore acting in accordance with this regularity that constitutes following a rule correctly. This means that when we engage in blind actions and judgements, we comply with rules in a way that has been developed in the community of which we are a member, therefore, it is only in relation to the structured practice of the community that the individual can engage in normative activity  [22]  . Williams theory of blind obedience as the source of the necessity of rules and normativity of rules as socially constructed appears to be a valid interpretation of Wittgensteins account of rule-following. However, the notion of socially embedded normativity appears to be in need of further examination. Even if Williams account does not rely on the overtly arbitrary assent of the community, how can an individual compare their understanding of the meaning of an expression with the one provided by the structured practice of the community and furthermore, how may the community ascertain an individuals understanding of a rule in a comprehensively in order to subject it to verification? In light of these queries, I believe that a more substantial account of social normativity is needed, one that I will explore in John McDowells critique of Crispin Wrights anti-realist theory of meaning. Crispin Wright held a community view of Wittgensteins account of rule-following however, he saw this as necessarily aligned with an anti-realist stance due to the scepticism against investigation-independent truth values that he took to be inherent in Wittgensteins rule-following considerations. According to Wright, there can be no such thing as an objective or investigation-independent fact and so the only source of normativity available to a language speaker is the verdict of the linguistic community. However, due to the lack of investigation-independence this verdict is arbitrary. Wright challenges the existence of investigation-independence by refuting the hypothetico-deductive picture of understanding which he believes to be a foundational aspect. In the case of learning a language, this theory assumes that the trainee is able to form a hypothesis of what they believe their trainer is attempting to convey. Wright argues that this would suggest that we all have some innate grasp of an idiolectic pattern of application. If this is the case, we can then assume that this insight is shared communally. Wright rejects this view of understanding as psychologically artificial  [23]  as it rests on the assumption that we have such access to understanding that allows us to make verifiable assertions about the meaning of expressions. He argues along similar lines to Kripke, that there is no way that a trainee may prove that her hypothesis correctly mirrors that of the apparent investigation-independent fact in every case of application. This then means that it is not possible to have a direct and privileged insight regarding the requisites of understanding an expression irrespective of whether this insight is shared. If we wish to claim that investigation-independent facts pertaining to language exist, they must be recognisable; otherwise the correct use of language would have to be regarded as a radical transcendence of human consciousness  [24]  . However, Wrights examination of the hypothetico-deductive picture shows that an individual cannot attribute themselves with the abil ity to recognise whether they are using an expression in accordance with the prescribed pattern of the fact, let alone persuade anyone else that they have this ability. From this Wright concludes that there is truth in the idea that it is community of assent which supplies the essential background against which alone it makes sense to think of individuals responses as correct or incorrect  [25]  . However, if we suppose that this means that the community has the capability that the individual lacks to recognise whether they are conforming to a determined pattern, we are then faced with the same dilemma as the individual as there is no way of knowing whether consensus aligns with correctness. Wright argues that communal consent can be the only authority regarding the correct employment of language (or in other words the application of the rules of language) but for the community itself there is no authority, so no standard to meet  [26]  meaning a community does not go right or wrong in accepting a particular verdict on a particular decidable question, rather, it just goes.  [27]   In accordance with Wrights belief that meaning cannot be constituted by investigation-independent facts he states that, the only notion of objectivity which the anti-realist can allow himself is the ordinary contrast between areas where disagreement is taken to betoken error or misunderstanding  [28]  . He argues that this is an acceptable view of meaning as our assertions can be given substance through reflecting on our epistemic practices from which they arise. However, this does not seem to be satisfactory, or even in alignment with Wittgensteins intentions due to such statements such as the agreement of ratifications is the pre-condition of our language-game, it is not affirmed in it  [29]  . It appears Wittgenstein believed not only that language games and the rules that govern them are not wholly determined by ratification, but they needed a stronger validation than such ratifications can provide. Although it is clear that Wittgenstein would not regard our grasping of m eaning as the grasping of a private idiolectic pattern, the way in which Wright approaches this seems to threaten normativity in an unnecessary way by associating the invalidity of the hypothetico-deductive picture with an inability of a community to recognise whether or not the individual is able to follow rules correctly. McDowell takes this view in his article Following a Rule in which he argues that Wrights anti-realist theory of meaning and understanding is not recognizable as such and furthermore cannot be regarded as Wittgensteins view. He states that Wrights rejection of investigation-independence yields a picture of the relation between the communal language and the world in which norms are obliterated  [30]  . In light of this it is difficult to see how the susceptibility of the individual to be corrected by the community can be regarded as a form of normativity as there are no norms that may constrain the judgement of the community. McDowell states that this revelation turns Wrights argument on its head  [31]  as it is then becomes necessary to reject anti-realism in order to discern an applicable notion of meaning. According to McDowell, the crux of Wrights misunderstanding, shared with Kripke lies in their overlooking of Wittgensteins intention to refute the convergence of understanding with interpretation which reflects his desire to preserve the sanctity of normativity and meaning. In fact, McDowell sees Wittgensteins goal as finding a middle path between two horns of a dilemma, one which he takes to be Kripkes view that understanding is necessarily interpretative leading to the sceptical paradox, and Wrights view in which expressions are behavioural reactions cultivated by the community making any notion of normativity an illusion. McDowell argues that the way in which we may follow a rule blindly avoiding the need for interpretation while retaining normativity is to situate the questions regarding rules, meaning and understanding within a framework of communal practices  [32]  and furthermore, to redefine what it means to be a member of a linguistic community. According to McDowell, a linguistic community is bound together, not by a match of mere externals (facts accessible to just anyone) but by a capacity for meeting of minds  [33]  . It is as a result of the capacity of members within a linguistic community to access aspects of other members understanding of expressions, that they are able to ascertain a shared meaning. McDowell concedes that Wright is correct to reject the idea that understanding an expression is to formulate a hypothesis concerning something concealed by the speakers linguistic behaviour. However, the anti-realist conclusion from this rejection is misguided in that it fails to also reject the idea that there is such a thing as surface linguistic behaviour. The linguistic behaviour of a speaker that is apparent to others must be characterised in terms of the contents of utterances  [34]  . A command of the language spoken by the speaker allows direct cognitive contact  [35]  with the meaning of this content and thus establishes true meeting of the minds. By this McDowell is suggesting that what we mean by our utterances is not hidden, it is in fact clearly discernible to those who speak the same language. By taking this view McDowell highlights Wittgensteins call for us to stop trying to look beneath the bedrock for reasons as to why we follow rules in a certain way. It is possible to ask further questions concerning the nature of rule-following and meaning but to do so blocks off the obvious and surely correct reading: that hearing a word in one sense rather than another is hearing it in one position rather than another in the network of possible patterns of making sense that we learn to find ourselves in when we acquire mastery of a language  [36]  . When we learn a language we also learn the ways in which this language should be used; there need not be a gap between the expression of a rule given in trainingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦and an action in conformity with it  [37]  . Therefore, when we understand an expression we use it in accordance with the communal use and our meaning is clear to those who share our language and customs. If we do not understand, our incomprehension is also clear and we may then be corrected. This appears to coincide with Wittgensteins belief that what is true or false is what human beings say; and it is in their language that human beings agree. This agreement not in opinion, but rather in form of life.  [38]   In this essay I have addressed the question of does Wittgenstein establish that language is rule-governed by discussing the issue of whether his account of rule-following can provide the justifications and normative standards that following a rule require. My exposition of the rule-following paradox and the deviant learner example revealed how Wittgenstein proved that we cannot provide a comprehensive account of rule-following by referring to the content of rules. However, even if this is the case, it does not necessarily mean that we must be sceptics regarding meaning as Kripke suggests. To believe that normativity and justification must be epistemic in nature is to misunderstand what it is to follow a rule. Williams account of how training situated within a particular social structure leads individuals to follow rules blindly effectively encapsulates how the only justification we require for the way we follow rules is that we have been trained to do so. I do believe Wright raises a valid point in asking how we may recognise that our understanding of certain rules is shared by others. However, through my examination of McDowells view that by sharing a language we are able to gain significant insight

Leadership Capabilities Of Steve Jobs Commerce Essay

Leadership Capabilities Of Steve Jobs Commerce Essay The main goal of this report is to examine and evaluate leadership capabilities of Steve Jobs. Jobs is the Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of Apple and nowadays possibly one of the most successful businessman on the world. Despite of many critics about his leadership. The fact that he is an effective leader is not contestable. Therefore, the main objective of this study is to examine the leadership qualities that have brought Jobs to the top of business World. CONTEXT AND BACKGROUND OF STEVE JOBS Steve Jobs was born on 24 February 1955, in San Francisco, California, United Sates. Clara and Paul Jobs adopted him shortly after birth. He was growing up in two with his sister Patty. In 1961, whole Jobs family relocated from San Francisco to Mountain View in California, which, was at that time the heart of electronics industry called Silicon Valley (Butcher, 1987). During his childhood, he was an individual who liked making things alone. He liked to compete with others, but definitely, he was not attracted in group sports or other team games. However, from the early age he demonstrated an intensive interest towards electronics field. He devoted all of his spare time observing and working together with neighbor who was employed at Hewlett-Packard (HP) that was an electronics producer. Moreover, at that time young Jobs joined to HP Explorer Club. This gave him possibility to observe engineers working on new products. When he was twelve, he could see and touch HPs first computer. Th is was huge milestone in his life, because then he thought that he wanted to work on this field (Stross Randall, 1993). While in high school, Jobs participated lecture at the HP factory. Once he asked directly William Hewlett CEO of HP, for some specific part, which, he required to finish a school project. Therefore, Hewlett was so dazzled he not only donated Jobs the parts, but most of all he proposed him a holiday job at HP. After High school, in 1972, Jobs joined to Reed College in Portland, Oregon. However, after one semester, he left and in summer, he decided to go to India and take a course of eastern religions. This is because Jobs was a contradictory, trifler young recluse with an inclination for problems. He liked hippie way of life, narcotics and Zen philosophy (Butcher Lee, 1987). After a few months in India, he came back. In 1975, Steve Jobs enrolled to the Homebrew Computer Club. There he met Steve Wozniak, a technical maniac who was designing a small sized computer. Steve fell in love in this idea and started exploring marketing possibility of such a product. Therefore, in 1976 together with Wozniak established their own company, which they named Apple. Initially they had no money to invest, thus to gain same resources for a startup Jobs sold his microbus and Wozniak his calculator which gave them $1,300. The first products they sold were circuit boards, which keep the inner parts of a computer. However, while selling these boards they were working on their core products that were personal computers (Norman, 2009). While doing marketing research Jobs realized that there is huge opportunity for them to expand on the market. This is because in that period time all computers available on the market were huge size that could hardly fit in the large room. What is more, at that time computers were so expensive that potential customers were not able to afford to purchase them. In response to the market needs, Apple designed its computers in this way in order to be able to sell its products to large number of users. Finally, in 1977 Apple II released to the market personal computer (PC) which in first year generated extraordinary sales of $2,7 million. The Apples sales rose to $200million within following three years. Apples example became the most unusual situation of corporate development in whole United States history. Throughout this implementation of PC Steve Jobs and its Apple permanently inscribed on the pages of history, because initiated completely new era era of personal computers (www.referenceforbusiness.com). In eighties, era of PC was progressing rapidly. Because of appearing competition on the market, Jobss and Wozniaks company was constantly pressed to develop its computers to remain a market leader. Jobs as a head of marketing of Apple in 1983 officially presented new computer called Lisa. That was created for users having smallest computer knowledge. However, mostly because of its high price this PC was not to o successful. For example, IBM, Apples biggest competitors (50% of PC market share) sold its PC at the lower price (Landrum Gene, 1993). In 1984, Jobss company issued pioneering model of computer on the market, called Macintosh (Mac). This PC differs from others in term of its usability (very easy to use). However, once again the sales level of Mac was poor. This is because; it did not have attributes that competitors had, for instance an adequate high tech printer. The catastrophe of the Mac initiated the start of Jobss collapse at Apple. Jobs retreated in 1985 from the company he had established; however, he kept the title of Chairman of the board (Norman, 2009). Short after this, Job employed several of his previous workers to establish another computer company named NeXT. Then in San Francisco in 1988, Jobs presented his new company. Preliminary feedback was good, because new PC was very easy to use, equipped in very fast processor, had great graphics, and an excellent sound sy stem. Unfortunately, no matters on the initial response from the users, the NeXTs PCs had never been released on the market. This was because once again these new computers were too expensive, possessed a black-and-white display, and were no compatible with other computers or could not work on universal software (Stross Randall, 1993). Definitely, NeXT was not the last one word of Jobs. Because in 1986 Steve bought from moviemaker, George Lukas a small-sized firm named Pixar. The core activity of Pixar was computer animation. Consequently, in 1995 this company issued famous Toy Story, which was a huge success of Pixar. Furthermore, in following years they released most successful animation movies ever such as Toy Story 2, A Bugs Life, and Monsters. After long time of failures, Pixars success was not the only one. Jobs privet life got better as well. Because in the same year, he got married and shortly he had, a baby girl named Lisa (www.referenceforbusiness.com). In the meantime, A pple wrestled below a sequence of six CEOs that had no vision and were not able to inspire the firms unmotivated engineers. Morale was down and so Apple was facing profit lose and poor financial liquidity. Then in following year, Jobs came back to Apple as consultant to the CEO. Right after this Apple bought NeXT Software. In 1997, Apple and its main competitor Microsoft became partners. In the same year, Apple started selling its products directly to customers both by internet but as well by telephone. Right after this, Apples web store went into the top three most successful e-shops worldwide (Butcher Lee, 1987). In following year, Steve publicly declared the issuing of the iMac that possessed great computing capability at the reasonable price. Additionally, in 1999 Apple released laptop available on whole plateau of colors called iBook. In 2000, Steve Jobs became once again permanent CEO of Apple (Norman, 2009). After 2001 has came a period of splendor for Apple and for Jobs tha t continues to these days. Consequently, in 2009 Forbes listed Jobs on the 43 position wealthiest people on the globe, with $5,100 million fortune. LEADERSHIP CAPABILITY OF STEVE JOBS Numerous academics have claimed that proper management of knowledge can bring to organizations crucial and essential competitive advantage. Leadership is foundation of the process of managing information efficiently and effectively (Bryant, 2003). The recent studies show that most successful managers, uses a set of different styles of leadership (Goleman, 2008). What is more Golemans survey identified the following role: leaders who have mastered at least four styles of the leadership especially the authoritative, democratic, unifying and coaching create the best atmosphere at work and have the best results. (quotation translated, 2008). Based on the leadership theories, in term of specific traits the most effective leaders are calm, innovative, confident and challenging (Belbin, 2008). They have a vision and charisma (Goleman, 2008). They have ability to convince and motivate others to act effectively, while encouraging personal development (Kouzes Posner, 2002). They uphold wid e picture, while delegating details to the others (Coutu, 2008). In case of Steve Deutschman stated (2001) that his most significant leadership feature was creativity and being innovative. We could easily state that innovation was a base on which he built his empire. Until these days, we can observe that innovation is still key factor, which brought Apple to the market leader position in information technology industry. Jobs understood that being innovative and providing permanently new ideas to meet customers needs is essence in effective leadership (Quittner, 2004). Some of us can joke that Jobs has no education background, because he has not finished any college. However, undoubted fact is that devoting his life to his passion, new solutions in IT branch achieved more than almost every human being could ever dream about. Despite of many critics towards his behavior and styles of leadership such as Jobs is perfectionist with tendency to intimidate others (Harvey, 2005), there are a few important facts: In 1976, he co-founded Apple, and until n owadays, he has successfully led company, which now has 15K employees. This can prove that Jobs possesses great leadership qualities. In period, from 1977 to 1985, Apple had in total six CEOs. Within this time company was losing money, management had not vision for the future and stuff was not motivated. Right after this, Jobs came back as a CEO and by implementation of a few innovative products in very short time Apple returned to the prosperity (Young, 2005). Moreover, additional capability of Jobss leadership is product passion and deep-seated consumer orientation. Jobs was judged for his approach to leadership, however his accomplishments were never negated, because all of these were world shattering. Another important of trait of Jobs leadership is ability to see big picture, thus not only PCs, but also long distance ahead (Landrum Gene, 1993). Consequently, many times people working with him did not understand choices of Jobs concerning new products implementation, or his lon g-term vision. For instance, shortly after he came back to Apple, he decided to stop most of running production lines. Instead of this, he focused only on four products. This soon after turned out to be a huge success (Deutchman, 2001). Steve is very challenging both his towards his employees, but first of all for himself. Thus, tasks he delegates to workers are very likely not fully SMART (specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, and time-framed). However, from the other hand, which is good thing, Jobs is permanently working to improve all fields of his job (Erve, 2004). Furthermore, there is crucial feature of Jobs leadership style that is his capability to connect passion and respects of his workers. Business Week (1997) argued that Jobs is a great example of transformational leadership (TL). This is leadership, which causes that workers devote all their energy in the companys strategy. TL takes place when, employees interact one on another, by which increase their morality a nd motivation (Kouzes Posner, 2002). Jobs as a transformational leader, was able to make its employees to do things that were in line with his vision of the companys development. Jobss best-known gift is his capability to charm and convince others. That is an extremely powerful trait, which, he uses often to persuade anyone of everything (Siracusa, 2007). Bennis and Thomas posted in their article that great leaders are born in the crucible of harsh experience (quotation translated, 2007). Furthermore, they added that: what makes a great leader is a resistance to adversity, and perseverance in the pursuit of goals. This is definitely significant capability of Jobs as a leader. As demonstrated above (leaving Apple in1985) Jobs life was full of failures. Most of the people in a similar situation would leave for good. However He did differently. Having a look on the Steves biography, we can also state that he has additional trait which good leader need to have, to perform effectively. Namely, this is self-confidence and ability to experiment and take a risk. These, according Kouzes and Posner are necessary (2002). All his live Jobs was confident, he deeply believed in all what he has been doing. He profoundly believed in his success, in success of companys strategy and so success of its products (Erve, 2004). This self-confidence and courage led him on the top. Many Journalists suggest that Jobs is egoist (Norman, 2009). Very likely he is indeed. However, this could be perceived also as crucial trait of effective leader, especially here in this case of company founder. Possibly Jobs has dreamed to be billionaire, and so egoism helped him to make this dream come true. Possibly egoism was a driving force which convinced him to create successful teams of employees that were able to develop such a revolutionary products. Jobs possesses also ability to create and develop great teams, consisted of star talents (Young, 2005). This is crucial trait, which is essential i n effective leadership (Kouzes Posner, 2002). This skill combined with great ideas, its vision and capability to manage and motivate his team could be key factors of his overall success. Summarizing the core features of Jobs success as leader are the following: being visionary, innovative and charismatic confidence and trust in: himself, success, his strategy capability to recruit, develop and motivate effective teams built of star talents persistence and resistance for defeats product zeal huge consumer devotion skill to transmit his ideas to the teams for realization; LEADERSHIP WEAKNESSES OF STEVE JOBS There is undoubted fact that overall performance Jobs has to be considered as a successful, because numbers on his bank account do not lie. He is extremely victorious businessman who achieved great financial status. However, there are also numerous of weaknesses, which, Steve Jobs possesses. Here based on the statements of people who have had direct contact with him, we could have a feelings Jobs represents typical for Belbins Shaper weaknesses, such as emotionality, the tendency to irritation or aggressive behavior (Belbin, 2004). Moreover, research performed by Belbin in 2004 to identify behavior of most effective manager indicated shaper team role as a least effective. Jobs represents also autocratic style of leadership. This approach has a tendency to weak decision-making process on the middle management level. Recently Apples management team gives the impression of being more motivated by dread of Steve than by their own inherent aspects (Siracusa, 2007). Webber from Washington Post said (2009) that Jobs had became a living legend in term of leadership style. Since his behavior discredits all existing best practices of leadership. He demonstrated long list of less than advisable behaviors, from public rebuking his employees to disrupting practices within meetings to the time consuming overview of every detail in product designing process. However in contrary experts and academics from leadership area state: Never reprimand your subordinate publicly! Rather, If necessary do it face to face (Walasek, 2010) The most effective leaders maintain wide focus, while leaving details to the others (Belbin, 2004) The most effective managers are calm and they are able to control their emotions (Rzyska, 2010) CONCLUSIONS This hard task to indicate weaknesses of the one of the biggest leaders ever CEO of decades (Fortune Magazine, 2009), whether to indicate the room for improvement in his leadership. Numbers do not lie he had no money when he started making business. Now he is billionaire. In 2009, Forbes magazine listed him on the 43 position wealthiest people on the globe, with $5,100 million fortune. Many traits that Jobs possesses seems to be completely opposite in relations to these indicated by leadership experts as an essential in order to be effective. However, those that he has, such as being innovative, self-confident, persistent for defeats or capability to make its ideas come true seem to be sufficient.

The Genetics of Language :: essays research papers

-ildar- The tabula of human nature was never rasa. W.D. Hamilton Language is defined as the â€Å"Communication of thoughts and feelings through a system of arbitrary signals, such as voice sounds, gestures, or written symbols.† Yet this alone cannot sum up the importance and vastness of this magnificent gift human own. Language is one of the most amazing features of human culture and personality; its roots have remained unchanged since the start of civilization. It is the basis of all communication in the world and in it’s best is the most complex form of expression. Language has always been assumed to be blatantly cultural lying at the heart of human social evolution, but this could not be farther from the truth. Language owes as much to instinct and innateness as it does to culture. Darwin once described language as an â€Å"instinctive tendency to acquire an art†; this view of language was re-revealed to the world through Noam Chomsky, in his book, Syntactic Structures. Chomsky argued that language is shaped through culture, but the underlying ability to learn and understand it, is innately built into the human psyche. Chomsky concluded that there were obvious underlying similarities in all languages, bearing witness to a â€Å"Universal Human Grammar†. We always use this ability to learn and use language, but we are not consciously aware of it. Vocabulary cannot be innate, because if it were were, we would all speak one, unvarying language. But lets take for example, a child; as it learns vocabulary, innate mental rules tell that child how to properly use that vocabulary. Lets take, for instance the sentence, â€Å"Sa mmy will buy groceries from the store†. You can turn that sentence into a question by moving the ‘will† to the front, making the sentence, â€Å"Will Sammy buy groceries from the store.† Young children can comfortably use this rule, even though never having been taught about the grammar involved in making a sentence like that, they just seem to know the rule. As psycholinguist Steven Pinker put it, â€Å"to learn a human language, requires a human language instinct. Language is not learned through imitation; if it were then why would children who have been using the word â€Å"went† for a year or so, start saying â€Å"goed†. The truth is that children start learning to speak themselves, at a much younger age regardless of our help. Children are a large part of developing a language; this was shown in a famous experiment conducted by Derek Bickerton.

The Effects of Violence in Children Cartoons :: Psychology

Television is everywhere these days, not just in our living rooms but in bathrooms, kitchens, doctor's offices, grocery stores, airplanes, and classrooms. We have access to TV virtually anywhere and as American's we are taking advantaged of it. Adults aren't the only ones watching TV; children today are watching more TV than ever before. TV has even become known as "America's baby-sitter." (Krieg). Meaning that parents are now using the television as a way of entertaining their children while they attempt to accomplish other things such as cooking and cleaning. Most American's would agree that children watch a lot of TV. It's common to see a child sitting in front of the TV on a Saturday morning with their Coco Pebbles watching their favorite superhero. This sounds harmless enough. However, many parents and teachers across the country are worried about the cartoons their children are watching. They feel that the cartoons have become too violent and are having negative long-term effects on children. It is common to see young boys pretending to shoot one another, while jumping on the couch and hiding in closets as a sort of make-believe fort. But parents say that children are learning these behaviors from cartoons and imitating them. Others however, disagree, they say that violence in cartoons does not effect children and that children need this world of fantasy in their lives. They say that children would show these same behaviors regardless of the content of the cartoons they watch. On average and American child will watch 32 acts of violence per hour on TV. This number has skyrocketed from 20 years ago when it was just 12 acts per hour (Krieg). This being said a child will have watched anywhere from 8,000 to 100,000 acts of violence before they even finish elementary school (Weiss). While adults can watch violence on TV and understand that it is not real, children on the other hand have difficulty differentiating the between what is real and what is make believe. Those arguing that children's cartoons are too violent say that these cartoons will greatly affect these children's behaviors growing up. Violence is a learned behavior and therefore children need to see violence in order to become violence themselves (Krieg). If a child is viewing their favorite character hitting, kicking, and beating up the "bad guys" a child will learn these behaviors too.

Causes of Poverty in the United States Essay -- Poor Economy Education

Causes of Poverty in the United States The United States defines poverty for a family of four as being less than $16,036 per year, or $4,009 per person (Leone 12). People find themselves under this line for an innumerable amount of reasons. Some of these causes are under one's control and others are greater factors beyond an individual's power. Each family or individual person has unique and separate reasons for living in a state poverty. There is no way to try and define them all. Focusing in, three main topics arise that encompass the most predominant reasons for a person to fall into poverty. Education, family life and influence, along with the business cycle may work individually or together to cause poverty. These three leading causes are presented and discussed along with facts prevalent to the issue in the section below. Education and Poverty Education, or inadequate education or lack of an education, causes poverty. From the early years of preschool, into the years of K-12, without a college education and on into the work force people in poverty may never stop suffering from it if they do not become educated. The United States generally looks at education as a path to success but the people with the longest road towards success are not getting enough education. In the years before kindergarten, children form their basic thinking skills and children who don't learn these at home fall behind everyone else. In most cases children in poverty do not achieve these skills to the extent of middle-class children from their environment at home. When poor children enter school they are generally a year and a half behind the language abilities of their middle-class peers. Already children of poverty are behind in their ... ...ge & Family May 2002. Seccombe, Karen. "Famlies in Poverty in the 1990's: Trends, Causes, Consequences, and Lessons Learned." Journal of Marriage and Family Nov. 2000. Starr, Alexander. "The Importance of Teaching Tots; Given the strong evidence of its benefits to society, preschool education for the poor - and perhaps all children- is a must." Business Week 26 Aug. 2002. "Unemployment Rate of Persons 16 Years Old and Over, by Age, Sex, Race/Ethnicity, and Highest Degree Attained, 1996, 1997, and 1998" Digest of Education Statistics1999. National Center for Education Statistics March 2000. U.S. Census Bureau. Statistical Abstract of the United States. 2001 Weir, Margaret. "Race and Urban Poverty." Brookings Review Summer 1993. Yapa, Lakshman. "What causes Poverty? A post-modern view." Annals of the Association of American Geographers Dec. 1996. Causes of Poverty in the United States Essay -- Poor Economy Education Causes of Poverty in the United States The United States defines poverty for a family of four as being less than $16,036 per year, or $4,009 per person (Leone 12). People find themselves under this line for an innumerable amount of reasons. Some of these causes are under one's control and others are greater factors beyond an individual's power. Each family or individual person has unique and separate reasons for living in a state poverty. There is no way to try and define them all. Focusing in, three main topics arise that encompass the most predominant reasons for a person to fall into poverty. Education, family life and influence, along with the business cycle may work individually or together to cause poverty. These three leading causes are presented and discussed along with facts prevalent to the issue in the section below. Education and Poverty Education, or inadequate education or lack of an education, causes poverty. From the early years of preschool, into the years of K-12, without a college education and on into the work force people in poverty may never stop suffering from it if they do not become educated. The United States generally looks at education as a path to success but the people with the longest road towards success are not getting enough education. In the years before kindergarten, children form their basic thinking skills and children who don't learn these at home fall behind everyone else. In most cases children in poverty do not achieve these skills to the extent of middle-class children from their environment at home. When poor children enter school they are generally a year and a half behind the language abilities of their middle-class peers. Already children of poverty are behind in their ... ...ge & Family May 2002. Seccombe, Karen. "Famlies in Poverty in the 1990's: Trends, Causes, Consequences, and Lessons Learned." Journal of Marriage and Family Nov. 2000. Starr, Alexander. "The Importance of Teaching Tots; Given the strong evidence of its benefits to society, preschool education for the poor - and perhaps all children- is a must." Business Week 26 Aug. 2002. "Unemployment Rate of Persons 16 Years Old and Over, by Age, Sex, Race/Ethnicity, and Highest Degree Attained, 1996, 1997, and 1998" Digest of Education Statistics1999. National Center for Education Statistics March 2000. U.S. Census Bureau. Statistical Abstract of the United States. 2001 Weir, Margaret. "Race and Urban Poverty." Brookings Review Summer 1993. Yapa, Lakshman. "What causes Poverty? A post-modern view." Annals of the Association of American Geographers Dec. 1996.